Author: Hichem Karoui

The London-based Global East-West will soon publish the book in Arabic, English, and French.

Book synopsis:

The book explores the complex and often controversial relationship between Habib Bourguiba and Gamal Abdel Nasser and their contrasting approaches to foreign policy, particularly with regard to Israel and the Palestinian question. The book’s central theme is the clash between Bourguiba’s pragmatism and realism and Nasser’s pan-Arabism, with both figures representing two different trajectories of political thought and strategy in the Arab world during the mid-twentieth century. This comparative study focuses on how their divergent views on Palestine and their broader foreign policy strategies shaped Arab politics and left a lasting legacy that still resonates today.

Nasser’s revolutionary vision versus Bourguiba’s pragmatic realism

In the aftermath of World War II and the creation of the state of Israel in 1948, the question of Palestine became the defining issue in Arab politics. Gamal Abdel Nasser, the charismatic Egyptian leader, emerged as a champion of Arab unity and resistance to Western imperialism and Zionism. He adopted a hardline stance against Israel, calling for its complete destruction and the liberation of Palestine through a unified Arab military effort. His fiery speeches and Arab nationalist vision inspired many worldwide, making him a symbol of Arab resistance to foreign domination.

Bourguiba, on the other hand, offered a radically different approach. As the leader of Tunisia’s successful struggle against French colonial rule, he had long experience with the limits of direct confrontation. He advocated a more balanced, gradual approach to dealing with Israel, a strategy he called a “policy of stages,” which he proposed in his famous speech in Jericho on March 3, 1965. Bourguiba argued that the Arabs should accept the 1947 UN partition plan, which called for the creation of two states – one Arab and one Jewish – in historic Palestine. In his view, this would give the Palestinians a foothold and provide the legal and political basis for future negotiations. His approach was rooted in realpolitik, the belief in seeking gradual, achievable gains through negotiation rather than total victory through war when the balance of power did not favor the Palestinian side.

The Arab world is divided: A Divide in Thought

Bourguiba’s proposal sparked outrage in the Arab world. Nasser and other Arab leaders categorically rejected his ideas, accusing him of betraying the Palestinian cause and acting as a puppet of the West. Many Arab intellectuals and leaders labeled Bourguiba a defeatist and even a Zionist collaborator. Nasser’s supporters rallied behind a more militant approach and saw no room for compromise with Israel, while Bourguiba’s defenders praised his pragmatism and strategic foresight.

This split between Nasserism and Bourguibia deepened in the 1950s and 1960s. For Nasser and his supporters, the Palestinian cause was integral to the broader struggle against imperialism and Western influence in the Arab world. For Bourguiba, Palestinians needed to focus on achievable goals, using diplomacy and negotiation to extract concessions from Israel, just as the Tunisians used a combination of diplomacy and armed resistance to secure their independence from France.

1967: The defeat of Gamal Abdel Nasser’s vision

The 1967 Six-Day War marked a turning point in this ideological battle. Nasser’s vision of Arab unity and military resistance to Israel was shattered by the humiliating defeat of the Arab armies. The war showed the limitations of Nasser’s approach, as Israel occupied large Arab territories, including the West Bank and Gaza. In hindsight, many saw that Bourguiba’s phased approach was more realistic, if not more prescient.

Nevertheless, Bourguiba’s proposals continued to face resistance. Although his pragmatic realpolitik proved more viable in subsequent events, including the gradual shift toward negotiations that culminated in the Oslo Accords decades later, it was not fully justified in the eyes of many Arabs. His willingness to deal with Israel on pragmatic terms was often misunderstood or deliberately misconstrued as a form of betrayal. However, he always framed his policies within the broader context of nationalism and self-reliance, notably advising Palestinians to avoid dependence on other Arab states.

Conclusion: Realpolitik, Liberation, and the Lessons of History

The book concludes by reflecting on the legacy of Bourguiba and Nasser’s contrasting approaches. Today, the Middle East remains in limbo, caught between radical views on both sides of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. Bourguiba’s model of gradualism and self-reliance offers a history lesson on the potential of pragmatic diplomacy to resolve seemingly intractable conflicts. Although often overlooked or vilified in his time, Bourguiba’s strategic insights may offer valuable lessons for contemporary efforts to navigate the complex political landscape of the Middle East.

Table of Contents

Epigraph
1. Introduction – Realpolitik and Revolutionary Ideals in Arab Politics
2. The Birth of Two Leaders: Bourguiba and Nasser’s Early Political Lives
3.1947 – A Fork in the Road: Bourguiba, Nasser, and the UN Partition Plan
4. The Arab Schism: Divided Views on Israel and Palestine
5. The 1967 Turning Point: The Six-Day War and the Failure of Nasser’s Strategy
6. Bourguiba’s Realpolitik: Stages Policy and National Self-Reliance
7. Nasser’s Revolutionary Legacy and the Arab Nationalist Dream
8. Bourguiba’s Realism: Perception and Misconception
9. After Nasser: The Arab World’s Shifting Loyalties and the Palestinian Cause
10. Bourguiba’s Long Shadow: Tunisia and Palestinian Politics After Nasser
11. Realpolitik in Retrospect: Bourguiba, Nasser, and the Modern Middle East
12. Conclusion – The Enduring Clash of Ideals: Diplomacy, Nationalism, and Realpolitik in Arab Foreign Policy

Introduction – Realpolitik and Revolutionary Ideals in Arab Politics

Defining Realpolitik and Revolutionary Ideals

Realpolitik, a concept rooted in German political thought, denotes a pragmatic approach to governance that privileges practical outcomes over ideological conformity. It entails a discerning evaluation of power relations, often placing the safeguarding of national interests and societal stability at the forefront. In stark contrast, revolutionary ideals evoke a passionate dedication to profound transformation, typically inspired by doctrines that advocate for comprehensive reorganization of society and the pursuit of lofty moral goals. This dichotomy between realpolitik and revolutionary fervor has profoundly influenced the political maneuvers and policies implemented by leaders and movements throughout the Arab world. The inherent tension between pragmatic considerations and ideological ambitions has been particularly pronounced in the region’s struggles for sovereignty, self-determination, and geopolitical reassertion.

Through the prism of realpolitik, leaders have adeptly navigated intricate international alliances and power constellations, making calculated choices that may appear discordant with the idealistic yearnings of their constituents. Simultaneously, the fervent pursuit of revolutionary ideals has emboldened movements and figures to disrupt entrenched power hierarchies, champion social justice, and aspire to transcend the constraints imposed by geopolitical realities. This continuous interplay between realism and optimism has historically shaped the direction of Arab political discourse, delineating the operational boundaries of leaders as well as the aspirations they articulate. By probing the subtleties of these contrasting paradigms, one can attain invaluable insights into the multifaceted challenges that have sculpted the political landscape of the region. Furthermore, this exploration illuminates the intricate motivations and considerations that drive the actions and choices of key political actors, revealing the delicate ballet between practical governance and transformative ambitions. Thus, comprehending the nexus between realpolitik and revolutionary ideals is crucial for unraveling the complexities of Arab political dynamics, as it underscores the relentless interaction between pragmatism and ideology that has profoundly marked the region’s historical trajectory and continues to influence contemporary geopolitical strategies.

Historical Context: The Arab World in the Early 20th Century

The early 20th century represents a watershed moment in the narrative of the Arab world, characterized by significant geopolitical upheavals and transformative socio-political currents. At the dawn of this century, the majority of Arab territories languished under the yoke of the Ottoman Empire, with only a handful of regions subjected to direct European colonial administration. The prevailing narrative was one of imperial domination, with a considerable portion of the Arab populace yearning for autonomy and self-governance.

This epoch also heralded the ascent of nationalist fervor and movements throughout the Arab realm, catalyzed by the Ottoman Empire’s decline and the burgeoning theoretical frameworks of sovereignty and nationhood. Intellectuals, scholars, and political leaders began articulating visions of Arab unity and independence, drawing inspiration from fervent nationalist movements sweeping across Europe and beyond. This nascent wave of Arab nationalism would ultimately lay the groundwork for the protracted quest for independence and self-governance.

Concurrently, the inexorable forces of rapid industrialization, modernization, and globalization permeated Arab societies, engendering profound social transformations and fostering an acute awareness of global affairs. The infiltration of Western ideas and practices, coupled with advances in mass communication, ignited debates regarding the preservation of Arab cultural identity amidst external encroachment. Moreover, these developments fostered a nascent consciousness surrounding the imperative of indigenous governance and the repudiation of foreign subjugation.

Amidst this tumultuous backdrop, the onset of World War I precipitated seismic shifts within the Arab world. The disintegration of the Ottoman Empire, coupled with clandestine treaties among European powers intent on partitioning the region, foreshadowed an era characterized by tumult and unrest. The post-war landscape introduced the mandate system, wherein European nations assumed governance of erstwhile Ottoman territories, further inflaming aspirations for self-rule and igniting fervent resistance against colonial authority.

In essence, the early 20th century served as a crucible of ferment and metamorphosis within the Arab world, laying the foundational pillars for the enduring struggle for self-determination and the realization of revolutionary aspirations.

Colonial Legacies and the Quest for Independence

The colonial legacies etched in the fabric of the Arab world have bequeathed a profound and lasting influence on the socio-political landscape of the region. The relentless pursuit of independence from colonial dominion has emerged as a defining motif that has intricately shaped the course of Arab politics throughout the 20th century. During the epoch of European imperialism, the Arab landscape was delineated into spheres of influence, with nations such as Egypt, Syria, Iraq, and Tunisia confronting either direct or indirect control by European powers. This subjugation not only precipitated the exploitation of local resources but also imposed foreign legal, administrative, and educational frameworks upon these societies.

The exigent struggle for independence was marked by a plethora of movements and insurrections against colonial rule. Figures like Gamal Abdel Nasser in Egypt and Habib Bourguiba in Tunisia emerged as influential leaders, vociferously championing the causes of self-determination and national sovereignty. The rise of nationalist sentiment, coupled with a fervent desire to reclaim Arab identity from the grasp of colonial forces, galvanized widespread mobilization and resistance against foreign domination.

Moreover, the colonial legacy has deeply permeated the economic and social structures within Arab societies. The inequitable distribution of wealth and power, perpetuated by colonial policies, engendered stark disparities, fostering pervasive poverty and marginalization. Educational institutions were reconfigured to serve colonial interests, often at the expense of indigenous knowledge and cultural heritage.

As the fervor for independence gained momentum, it catalyzed intellectual and cultural movements intent on redefining Arab identity and reclaiming autonomy. Writers, thinkers, and activists played pivotal roles in articulating the aspirations of a populace yearning for liberation from external subjugation. Yet, the trajectory towards independence was fraught with challenges, as colonial powers resisted relinquishing their hold on Arab territories, inciting conflicts and confrontations in the process.

The pursuit of independence constituted not merely a political endeavor; it was a multifaceted undertaking that encompassed cultural, economic, and ideological dimensions. The call for self-rule necessitated the revival of national pride, the reform of governance structures, and the establishment of viable economies insulated from exploitative practices. These endeavors laid the groundwork for the emergence of independent Arab states, each reflecting the profound marks of their respective struggles against colonial legacies.

Pan-Arab Nationalism: Origins and Influence

Pan-Arab nationalism, an influential political ideology advocating for the unification of Arab peoples into a singular state, emerged as a formidable force in the 20th century, profoundly altering the course of Arab politics and international relations. The roots of Pan-Arab nationalism can be traced back to the waning days of the Ottoman Empire, followed by the arbitrary fragmentation of the Arab world by European colonial powers in the aftermath of World War I. The capricious delineation of borders and the imposition of foreign governance engendered a collective disillusionment and a fervent yearning for national self-determination among Arab populations.

Visionaries such as Michel Aflaq, Sati‘ al-Husri, and Zaki al-Arsuzi were instrumental in articulating and disseminating the tenets of Pan-Arabism, highlighting the shared language, culture, and history that underpinned a cohesive Arab identity as powerful justifications for unity. These intellectuals transcended the confines of academia, embedding their ideas in public discourse and igniting grassroots movements throughout the Arab world.

During the mid-20th century, Pan-Arab nationalism experienced a significant resurgence, propelled by leaders like Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt and Hafez al-Assad of Syria who sought to leverage its appeal to consolidate their power and confront Western hegemony in the region. Nasser, in particular, emerged as the charismatic embodiment of Pan-Arabism, utilizing his populist rhetoric and anti-imperialist stance to galvanize support from a diverse array of Arab constituencies.

The enduring resonance of Pan-Arab nationalism echoed not only within Arab states but also among diaspora communities, evoking a profound sense of solidarity and a shared destiny. Nevertheless, the lofty ambitions of Pan-Arab nationalism grappled with significant challenges, including internal discord, regional rivalries, and the intricate complexities associated with constructing a cohesive political entity that accommodates diverse cultures and interests.

Despite its eventual decline as a dominant political force, the legacy of Pan-Arab nationalism persists, leaving an indelible imprint on the collective consciousness of the Arab world. It continues to inform contemporary dialogues surrounding Arab identity, governance, and collaboration on the international stage.

The Ideological Divide: Pragmatism versus Idealism

The ideological landscape of Arab politics is characterized by a profound and enduring schism between pragmatism and idealism. At the core of this divide lies a fundamental tension between the pursuit of practical, realistic objectives and an unwavering commitment to revolutionary ideals. This ideological rift has significantly influenced the strategies, alliances, and conflicts that have shaped the modern history of the Arab world.

On one side, advocates of pragmatism endorse a calculated approach to governance and diplomacy, prioritizing stability, economic growth, and pragmatic relations with global powers as essential elements of national progress. Leaders espousing this pragmatic orientation often seek to reconcile national interests with the realities of international geopolitics, recognizing the constraints imposed by the broader global system while striving to safeguard their countries’ sovereignty and prosperity.

Conversely, stalwart proponents of idealism maintain a resolute dedication to revolutionary principles, including anti-imperialism, social justice, and pan-Arab unity. This idealistic vision champions a transformative agenda focused on challenging prevailing power structures, championing the rights of the disenfranchised, and advocating for radical reforms both domestically and regionally. Proponents of this perspective frequently underscore the moral imperative of endorsing liberation movements, confronting autocratic regimes, and promoting the cause of self-determination for all peoples across the Arab world.

The clash between pragmatism and idealism has engendered intricate debates and policy dilemmas across the Arab political spectrum. These competing ideologies yield divergent foreign policies, strategic alignments, and domestic agendas, contributing to complex dynamics within and among Arab states. The interaction between these contrasting paradigms has been instrumental in shaping alliances and divisions, influencing popular movements, and invigorating intellectual discourse within the Arab community.

Navigating the complex terrain of pragmatism and idealism necessitates a nuanced understanding of historical contexts, regional dynamics, and the ideological orientations of individual leaders. Furthermore, the evolving nature of global challenges, technological advancements, and socioeconomic transformations continues to redefine the contours of this enduring ideological struggle.

Recognizing the significance of this ideological divide is essential to comprehending the complexities of contemporary Arab politics and the ongoing quest for a harmonious synthesis of realism and idealism in pursuit of a just and prosperous future for the region.

Key Players: Influential Figures and Political Movements

In the exploration of Arab political dynamics, it becomes evident that a plethora of influential figures and political movements have substantially shaped the region’s evolution. From charismatic leaders to pivotal organizations, these key players have left an unforgettable imprint on the political, social, and economic landscapes of the Arab world. An examination of Arab politics is incomplete without acknowledging the crucial contributions of individuals such as Gamal Abdel Nasser, the charismatic President of Egypt, who fervently advocated for pan-Arab nationalism and navigated the nation through a transformative era.

The significance of Habib Bourguiba, the inaugural President of Tunisia, in promoting pragmatic policies and addressing regional challenges with a visionary approach is equally noteworthy. Additionally, movements like the Arab Socialist Ba’ath Party, which emerged as a dominant force in shaping the political terrains of Syria and Iraq, highlight the importance of ideological and organizational influences in Arab politics.

Beyond individual leadership, the Muslim Brotherhood has emerged as a deeply impactful entity across the Arab world, significantly shaping political discourse and activism. Furthermore, the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), under the stewardship of Yasser Arafat, became a central actor in regional affairs, amplifying the Palestinian cause on the global stage.

These influential figures and movements have not only shaped domestic policies but have also profoundly impacted regional alliances, ideologies, and conflicts. The interplay among these key players paints a complex tapestry of political dynamics where personal ambitions often intersect with broader geopolitical imperatives. Understanding the motivations and strategies of these influential figures and movements is vital for unraveling the intricacies of Arab politics and deciphering the nuanced relationships that have defined the region’s historical and future trajectories. It is within this framework that we must scrutinize the legacies and enduring impacts of these key players, acknowledging their significant influence on the trajectory of Arab politics.

Bourguiba and Nasser: A Comparative Overview

Habib Bourguiba and Gamal Abdel Nasser emerged as monumental figures in the evolution of Arab politics, leaving an indelible mark on their respective states, the wider Arab and African sphere, and the developing world, particularly the Non-Aligned Movement. Bourguiba, the founder and first president of Tunisia, was a pragmatic statesman renowned for his moderate disposition, while Nasser, the second President of Egypt, encapsulated the fervor of pan-Arab nationalism and anti-colonial sentiment. The divergent ideologies and leadership styles of these leaders provide a rich foundation for comparative analysis.

Although both leaders were instrumental figures during the post-colonial period, their approaches diverged notably. Bourguiba championed gradual reform and modernization, aiming to maintain stability and stimulate economic growth within Tunisia. In stark contrast, Nasser pursued a more radical agenda, advocating for Arab socialism and Pan-Arab unity. This distinction encapsulates the broader ideological spectrum that characterized the Arab political landscape throughout the mid-20th century.

In terms of foreign policy, Bourguiba emphasized diplomatic pragmatism and did not reject collaboration with Western powers to safeguard Tunisia’s interests, whereas Nasser adopted a more confrontational posture toward colonial influences, positioning Egypt as a prominent voice within the Non-Aligned Movement. This dichotomy reinforced the complex interplay of nationalism, regional dynamics, and global power struggles defining their respective tenures.

A closer examination of their domestic agendas reveals contrasting aspirations for societal transformation. Bourguiba advanced secularism and promoted women’s rights, establishing Tunisia as a progressive model within the region, while Nasser’s regime gravitated toward Arab socialism, implementing extensive state control and ambitious initiatives for industrialization and land reform. These divergent trajectories have significantly shaped the socio-economic fabric of their nations, imprinting lasting effects on the evolution of governance in the region.

Moreover, both leaders exerted substantial influence over the Arab-Israeli conflict. Bourguiba advocated a strategy that adopted a realistic approach to politics and played a vital role in calling on the Palestinians to become self-reliant, as the Tunisians did, and pursue a policy of phases to achieve their national independence in the 1965 Jericho speech. Conversely, Nasser’s confrontational approach resulted in a series of conflicts with Israel, most notably the Six-Day War of 1967, which ended in a shameful Arab defeat reshaping the geopolitical landscape of the Middle East.

Ultimately, Bourguiba and Nasser’s comparative analysis yields valuable insights into the complexities of Arab political leadership and the intricate interplay between realpolitik and revolutionary ideals. Their legacies serve as essential reference points for understanding the diverse trajectories of Arab states and the enduring implications of their decisions on the geopolitical dynamics of the region.

Impact of Global Politics on Arab Strategies

The significance of global politics in shaping Arab strategies is profound, as the interplay between international power dynamics and regional interests has consistently reconfigured the political landscape of the Arab world. Spanning from the colonial epoch through to the post-Cold War era, external influences have profoundly impacted the formulation and implementation of Arab political strategies.

The emergence of a bipolar world order during the Cold War imposed significant pressures on Arab states to align either with the United States or the Soviet Union. This geopolitical environment fostered a complex web of alliances and rivalries that not only influenced the internal policies of Arab nations but also exacerbated regional conflicts and power struggles. For example, the Arab-Israeli conflict became deeply intertwined with the wider East-West rivalry, complicating ongoing efforts to establish lasting peace and stability in the region.

The conclusion of the Cold War marked a further evolution in global politics, ushering in a period characterized by unipolarity, defined by the preeminent dominance of the United States. This new era prompted substantial shifts in Arab strategies as countries had to deal with a single, dominant superpower while simultaneously addressing internal socio-economic challenges and aspirations for greater autonomy. The U.S.-led interventions in the Middle East, notably during the Gulf War and the Iraq War, significantly altered regional power dynamics, creating ripple effects that continue to influence the Arab world today.

In the contemporary context, the impact of global politics on Arab strategies is accentuated by multifaceted developments, including globalization, energy geopolitics, and the complexities of counterterrorism. Arab states confront the imperative of engaging with the international community while safeguarding their national interests through negotiations on trade agreements and security partnerships within an increasingly interconnected world. The urgency of regional integration initiatives and cooperative frameworks reflects the necessity of navigating a swiftly changing global order.

The consequences of global politics extend beyond mere diplomatic maneuvers and foreign policies. These influences permeate economic policies, defense postures, and societal dynamics, providing a crucial lens through which to comprehend the intricate interplay between local imperatives and global forces. As the Arab world navigates the challenges and opportunities presented by the evolving international landscape, the adaptability and discernment of its strategic choices will remain pivotal in shaping the region’s trajectory, epitomizing a delicate balance between sovereignty and interdependence.

The Role of Religion and Culture in Political Ideologies

Religion and culture have historically occupied central positions in shaping political ideologies and dynamics within the Arab world. Islam, with its significant historical and contemporary relevance, exerts a powerful influence on the political frameworks of Arab nations. The intersection of faith and politics presents a complex narrative that often highlights the intricate nature of governance in the region. From the early days of Islamic expansion to contemporary governance, religion has been woven into the socio-political fabric of Arab societies, giving rise to a spectrum of interpretations of Islamic principles that vie for dominance in the formation of political ideologies.

Additionally, the rich cultural heritage of the Arab world—encompassing art, literature, language, and traditions—has further contributed to the identity and aspirations of various political movements. Whether through the emotive power of poetry or the potent symbolism of traditional practices, culture serves as a formidable medium for articulating political ideologies and mobilizing support. The diverse cultural mosaic of the Arab world, with its myriad influences, has both united and divided, fundamentally impacting political thought and action.

Moreover, the interplay between religion, culture, and politics has fostered alliances and rivalries, creating intricate networks of influence and power. Within this context, it is crucial to grasp the multifaceted nature of religious and cultural ideologies, along with their implications for governance and public policy. The amalgamation of religious values with contemporary political ideologies is imperative to understanding the evolution of governance and statecraft in the Arab world.

By examining historical precedents alongside current realities, it becomes clear that religion and culture remain potent catalysts for political change and continuity. Consequently, comprehending their impact on governance and policy formulation is essential for addressing the multifaceted challenges and possibilities inherent in the political landscape of the region. Recognizing the dynamic nature of religious and cultural influences is equally vital as these elements adapt to modern realities while retaining their enduring significance. Thus, the role of religion and culture in political ideologies continues to constitute a compelling and indispensable aspect of the Arab political narrative, intricately intertwined with the pursuit of transformative governance and sustainable stability.

Setting the Stage: Preparing for Transformation

Religion and culture have profoundly influenced political ideologies and strategies across the Arab world. As the region grapples with the complexities of modernity and global dynamics, the interplay between traditional values and evolving societal norms has set the stage for a transformative era in Arab politics. Central to this transformative process is the dynamic interplay between tradition and progress. The rich tapestry of religious beliefs, cultural customs, and historical narratives continues to exert significant influence over political decision-making and public discourse. However, alongside these enduring foundations, a surge of social and technological advancements has catalyzed unprecedented shifts in public awareness and civic engagement. The advent of social media and the empowerment of youth initiatives have led to a renaissance of societal participation, redefining the parameters of political agency and accountability.

Additionally, the geopolitical landscape has undergone remarkable transformations, both within the region and on the international stage. The interconnectedness of global economies, the revival of geopolitical alliances, and the evolving nature of security threats have necessitated a reevaluation of traditional power dynamics and strategic partnerships. This reconfiguration of the geopolitical order has fostered a climate of strategic recalibration, compelling Arab states to adapt their foreign policy objectives and diplomatic endeavors to address the exigencies of an increasingly interconnected world.

Moreover, economic imperatives and resource management have emerged as vital catalysts for transformation. The diversification of national economies, the promotion of sustainable development, and the pursuit of innovative investment models have become central tenets of contemporary statecraft. This paradigm shift in economic priorities not only highlights the necessity for adaptive policy frameworks but also presents opportunities for cross-border collaboration and regional integration. By strategically leveraging economic growth and resource utilization, Arab nations are poised to chart a pathway towards greater self-sufficiency and resilience.

In summary, as the Arab world stands on the brink of significant change, the confluence of religious, cultural, technological, geopolitical, and economic forces is redefining the course of regional politics. The forthcoming chapter will illuminate the intricate pathways through which these transformative dynamics are reshaping Arab governance and prospects for diplomatic evolution.